Desalination is the process of removing salt and other impurities from seawater or brackish water to produce fresh, potable water. Reverse Osmosis (RO) is the most widely used desalination technology due to its efficiency and scalability.

Reverse osmosis relies on a semi-permeable membrane to separate salt and other contaminants from water by applying high pressure.

Key Steps:
1. Intake: Seawater is drawn from the ocean or a brackish source.

2. Pretreatment:

• Filtration to remove large particles (sand, algae).
• Chemical treatment (e.g., antiscalants to prevent membrane fouling).

3. High-Pressure Pumping: Water is pressurized (typically 50–80 bar for seawater) to overcome osmotic pressure.

4. RO Membrane Separation:

• The membrane allows water molecules to pass while blocking salt ions (Na⁺, Cl⁻) and other impurities.
• ~40–60% of the feed water becomes freshwater (permeate).
• The remaining brine (concentrated saltwater) is discharged or further treated.

5. Post-Treatment:

• Remineralization (adding calcium, magnesium) to improve taste.
• pH adjustment.
• Disinfection (chlorination or UV treatment).

• Energy Efficiency: Modern RO plants use 3–10 kWh/m³, lower than thermal desalination.
• Scalability: Suitable for small (portable units) to large municipal plants.
• High Purity: Removes >99% of dissolved salts, bacteria, and viruses.
• Lower Costs: Technological advancements have reduced expenses over time.

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